Economic life
There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity
such as agriculture, industry and crafts and trade. Wheat and barley
were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton.
Surplus grain is stored in granaries. Animals like sheep, goats and
buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly
established. A number of other animals were hunted for food
including deer.
Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brick
makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta
manufacturers. Bronze and copper vessels are the outstanding
examples of the Harappan metal craft.
Gold and silver ornaments are found in
many places. Pottery remains plain and
in some places red and black painted
pottery is found. Beads were
manufactured from a wide variety of
semi-precious stones.
Internal trade was extensive with
other parts of India. Foreign trade was
mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan andIran Gold, copper, tin and several semi-precious stones were
imported. Main exports were several agricultural products such as
wheat, barely, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products
including cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory
products. There is much evidence to prove the trade links between
the Indus and Sumerian people. Many seals of Indus valley have
been found in Mesopotamia. Trade was of the barter type. The
seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of
bullock carts and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for
river and sea transport.
Social Life
Much evidence is available to understand the social life of the
Harappans. The dress of both men and women consisted of two
pieces of cloth, one upper garment and
the other lower garment. Beads were
worn by men and women. Jewelleries
such as bangles, bracelets, fillets,
girdles, anklets, ear-rings and fingerrings
were worn by women. These
ornaments were made of gold, silver,
copper, bronze and semi precious
stones. The use of cosmetics was
common. Various household articles
made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory and metal have been found at
Mohenjodaro. Spindles, needles, combs, fishhooks, knives are made
of copper. Children’s toys include little clay carts. Marbles, balls
and dice were used for games. Fishing was a regular occupation
while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes. There were
numerous specimens of weapons of war such as axes, spearheads,
daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze.The Harappan sculpture revealed a high degree of
workmanship. Figures of men and women, animals and birds made
of terracotta and the carvings on the seals show
the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor.
The figure of a dancing girl from Mohenjodaro made
of bronze is remarkable for its workmanship. Its
right hand rests on the hip, while the left arm,
covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed
posture. Two stone statues from Harappa, one
representing the back view of a man and the other
of a dancer are also specimens of their sculpture.
The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of
the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were painted
with various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality.
The pictorial motifs consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal
lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some pottery pieces we
find figures of fish or peacock.
Script
The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered. The
number of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are
basic and the rest are their variants. The script
was mostly written from right to left. In a few
long seals the boustrophedon method – writing
in the reverse direction in alternative lines - was
adopted. Parpola and his Scandinavian
colleagues came to the conclusion that the
language of the Harappans was Dravidian. A
group of Soviet scholars accepts this view.
Other scholars provide different view connecting the Harappan
script with that of Brahmi. The mystery of the Harappan script stillexists and there is no doubt that the decipherment of Harappan
script will throw much light on this culture.
Religion
From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we
get an idea on the religious life of the Harappans. The chief male
deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a
yogic posture with three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by
four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a different
direction). Two deer appear on his feet. The chief female deity was
the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. In latter
times, Linga worship was prevalent. Trees and animals were also
worshipped by the Harappans. They believed in ghosts and evil
forces and used amulets as protection against them.
Burial Methods
The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro,
Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial
practices of the Harappans. Complete burial and post-cremation
burial were popular at Mohenjodaro. At Lothal the burial pit was
lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins. Wooden coffins
were also found at Harappa. The practice of pot burials is found at
Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons. However, there is no clear
evidence for the practice of Sati.
Decline of the Harappan Culture
There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for the
decline of the Harappan culture. Various theories have been
postulated. Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up of
rivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive exploitation
and occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of the
Harappan cities. According to some scholars the final blow wasdelivered by the invasion of Aryans.
The destruction of forts is
mentioned in the Rig Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons
huddled together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded
by foreigners. The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift
horses which might have enabled them to become masters of this
region.
There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity
such as agriculture, industry and crafts and trade. Wheat and barley
were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton.
Surplus grain is stored in granaries. Animals like sheep, goats and
buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly
established. A number of other animals were hunted for food
including deer.
Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brick
makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta
manufacturers. Bronze and copper vessels are the outstanding
examples of the Harappan metal craft.
Gold and silver ornaments are found in
many places. Pottery remains plain and
in some places red and black painted
pottery is found. Beads were
manufactured from a wide variety of
semi-precious stones.
Internal trade was extensive with
other parts of India. Foreign trade was
mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan andIran Gold, copper, tin and several semi-precious stones were
imported. Main exports were several agricultural products such as
wheat, barely, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products
including cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory
products. There is much evidence to prove the trade links between
the Indus and Sumerian people. Many seals of Indus valley have
been found in Mesopotamia. Trade was of the barter type. The
seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of
bullock carts and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for
river and sea transport.
Social Life
Much evidence is available to understand the social life of the
Harappans. The dress of both men and women consisted of two
pieces of cloth, one upper garment and
the other lower garment. Beads were
worn by men and women. Jewelleries
such as bangles, bracelets, fillets,
girdles, anklets, ear-rings and fingerrings
were worn by women. These
ornaments were made of gold, silver,
copper, bronze and semi precious
stones. The use of cosmetics was
common. Various household articles
made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory and metal have been found at
Mohenjodaro. Spindles, needles, combs, fishhooks, knives are made
of copper. Children’s toys include little clay carts. Marbles, balls
and dice were used for games. Fishing was a regular occupation
while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes. There were
numerous specimens of weapons of war such as axes, spearheads,
daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze.The Harappan sculpture revealed a high degree of
workmanship. Figures of men and women, animals and birds made
of terracotta and the carvings on the seals show
the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor.
The figure of a dancing girl from Mohenjodaro made
of bronze is remarkable for its workmanship. Its
right hand rests on the hip, while the left arm,
covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed
posture. Two stone statues from Harappa, one
representing the back view of a man and the other
of a dancer are also specimens of their sculpture.
The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of
the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were painted
with various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality.
The pictorial motifs consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal
lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some pottery pieces we
find figures of fish or peacock.
Script
The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered. The
number of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are
basic and the rest are their variants. The script
was mostly written from right to left. In a few
long seals the boustrophedon method – writing
in the reverse direction in alternative lines - was
adopted. Parpola and his Scandinavian
colleagues came to the conclusion that the
language of the Harappans was Dravidian. A
group of Soviet scholars accepts this view.
Other scholars provide different view connecting the Harappan
script with that of Brahmi. The mystery of the Harappan script stillexists and there is no doubt that the decipherment of Harappan
script will throw much light on this culture.
Religion
From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we
get an idea on the religious life of the Harappans. The chief male
deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a
yogic posture with three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by
four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a different
direction). Two deer appear on his feet. The chief female deity was
the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. In latter
times, Linga worship was prevalent. Trees and animals were also
worshipped by the Harappans. They believed in ghosts and evil
forces and used amulets as protection against them.
Burial Methods
The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro,
Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial
practices of the Harappans. Complete burial and post-cremation
burial were popular at Mohenjodaro. At Lothal the burial pit was
lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins. Wooden coffins
were also found at Harappa. The practice of pot burials is found at
Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons. However, there is no clear
evidence for the practice of Sati.
Decline of the Harappan Culture
There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for the
decline of the Harappan culture. Various theories have been
postulated. Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up of
rivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive exploitation
and occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of the
Harappan cities. According to some scholars the final blow wasdelivered by the invasion of Aryans.
The destruction of forts is
mentioned in the Rig Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons
huddled together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded
by foreigners. The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift
horses which might have enabled them to become masters of this
region.
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