Chandragupta II (380-415 A.D.)

Chandragupta II (380-415 A.D.)

Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II
Vikramaditya. But according to some scholars, the immediate
successor of Samudragupta was Ramagupta, the elder brother of
Chandragupta II. But there is little historical proof for this.
Chandragupta II inherited the military genius of his father and
extended the Gupta Empire by his own conquests.
He achieved this by a judicious combination of the policy of
diplomacy and warfare. Through matrimonial alliances he
strengthened his political power. He married Kuberanaga, a Naga
princess of central India. He gave his daughter Prabhavati in marriage
to the Vakataka prince Rudrasena II. The political importance of
this marriage lies in the fact that the Vakatakas occupied a
geographically strategic position in the Deccan. This alliance served
a useful purpose when Chandragupta-II undertook his campaign in
western India against the Sakas.

Conquest of Western India

The greatest of the military achievements of Chandragupta II

was his war against the Saka satraps of western India. Rudrasimha

III, the last ruler of the Saka satrap was defeated, dethroned and

killed. His territories in western Malwa and the Kathiawar Peninsula

were annexed into the Gupta Empire. After this victory he performed

the horse sacrifice and assumed the title Sakari, meaning, ‘destroyer

of Sakas’. He also called himself Vikramaditya

As a result of the conquest of western India, the western

boundary of the Empire reached to the Arabian Sea gaining access

to Broach, Sopara, Cambay and other sea ports. This enabled the

Gupta empire to control trade with the western countries. Ujjain

became an important commercial city and soon became the

alternative capital of the Guptas. The fine cotton clothes of Bengal,Indigo from Bihar, silk from Banares, the scents of the Himalayas

and the sandal and species from the south were brought to these

ports without any interference. The western traders poured Roman

gold into India in return for Indian products. The great wealth of the

Gupta Empire was manifest in the variety of gold coins issued by

Chandragupta II.

Other Conquests

Chandragupta II defeated a confederacy of enemy chiefs in

Vanga. He also crossed the river Sindh and conquered Bactria. The

Kushanas ruling in this region were subdued by him. With these

conquests, the Gupta empire extended in the west as far as western

Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar. In the northwest it extended beyond

the Hindukush up to Bactria. In the east, it included even eastern

Bengal and in the south the Narmada river formed the boundary.

Fahien’s Visit

The famous Chinese pilgrim, Fahien visited India during the

reign of Chandragupta II. Out of his nine years stay in India, he

spent six years in the Gupta empire. He came to India by the land

route through Khotan, Kashgar, Gandhara and Punjab. He visited

Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara,

Pataliputra, Kasi and Bodh Gaya among other places. He returned

by the sea route, visiting on the way Ceylon and Java. The main

purpose of his visit was to see the land of the Buddha and to collect

Buddhist manuscripts from India. He stayed in Pataliputra for three

years studying Sanskrit and copying Buddhist texts.

Fahien provides valuable information on the religious, social

and economic condition of the Gupta empire. According to him,

Buddhism was in a flourishing condition in the northwestern India

but in the Gangetic valley it was in a state of neglect. He refers to

the Gangetic valley as the ‘land of Brahmanism’. Fahien mentionsthe unsatisfactory state of some of the Buddhist holy places like

Kapilavastu and Kusinagara. According to him the economic

condition of the empire was prosperous.

Although his account is valuable in many respects, he did not

mention the name of Chandragupta II. He was not interested in

political affairs. His interest was primarily religion. He assessed

everything from the Buddhist angle. His observations on social

conditions are found to be exaggerated. Yet, his accounts are useful

to know the general condition of the country.

hisstor of the Chandragupta I (320 – 330 A.D.)

Chandragupta I (320 – 330 A.D.)

The founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. He was
succeeded by Ghatotkacha. These two were called Maharajas.
Much information was not available about their rule. The next ruler
was Chandragupta I and he was the first to be called
Maharajadhiraja (the great king of kings). This title indicates his
extensive conquests. He strengthened his position by a matrimonial
alliance with the Licchavis. He married Kumaradevi, a princess of
that family. This added to the power and prestige of the Gupta family.
The Meherauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions his extensive
conquests. Chandragupta I is considered to be the founder of the
Gupta era which starts with his accession in A.D. 320.

Samudragupta (330-380 A.D.)

Samudragupta was the greatest of the rulers of the Gupta

dynasty. The Allahabad Pillar inscription provides a detailed account

of his reign. It refers to three stages in his military campaign:1. Against some rulers of North India

2. His famous Dakshinapatha expedition against South Indian

rulers

3. A second campaign against some other rulers of North India.

In the first campaign Samudragupta defeated Achyuta and

Nagasena. Achyuta was probably a Naga ruler. Nagasena belonged

to the Kota family which was ruling over the upper Gangetic valley.

They were defeated and their states were annexed. As a result of

this short campaign, Samudragupta had gained complete mastery

over the upper Gangetic valley.

Then Samudragupta marched against the South Indian

monarchs. The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that

Samudragupta defeated twelve rulers in his South Indian Expedition.

They were Mahendra of Kosala, Vyaghraraja of Mahakanthara,

Mantaraja of Kaurala, Mahendragiri of Pishtapura, Swamidatta of

Kottura, Damana of Erandapalla, Vishnugupta of Kanchi, Nilaraja

of Avamukta, Hastivarman of Vengi, Ugrasena of Palakka, Kubera

of Devarashtra and Dhananjaya of Kushtalapura. Samudragupta’s

policy in South India was different. He did not destroy and annex

those kingdoms. Instead, he defeated the rulers but gave them back

their kingdoms. He only insisted on them to acknowledge his

suzerainty.

The third stage of Samudragupta’s campaign was to eliminate

his remaining north Indian rivals. He fought against nine kings,

uprooted them and annexed their territories. They were Rudradeva,

Matila, Nagadatta, Chandravarman, Ganapathinaga, Nagasena,

Achyuta, Nandin and Balavarman. Most of these rulers were

members of the Naga family, then ruling over different parts of north

India.After these military victories,

Samudragupta performed the

asvamedha sacrifice. He issued gold

and silver coins with the legend

‘restorer of the asvamedha’. It is

because of his military achievements

Samudragupta was hailed as ‘Indian Napoleon’.

Extant of Samudragupta’s Empire

After these conquests, Samudragupta’s rule extended over

the upper Gangetic valley, the greater part of modern U.P., a portion

of central India and the southwestern part of Bengal. These territories

were directly administered by him. In the south there were

tributary states. The Saka and Kushana principalities on the west

and northwest were within the sphere of his influence. The kingdoms

on the east coast of the Deccan, as far as the Pallava Kingdom,

acknowledged his suzerainty.

Estimate of Samudragupta

Samudragupta’s military achievements remain remarkable in

the annals of history. He was equally great in his other personal

accomplishments. The Allahabad Pillar inscription speaks of his

magnanimity to his foes, his polished intellect, his poetic skill and

his proficiency in music. It calls him Kaviraja because of his ability

in composing verses. His image depicting him with Veena is found

in the coins issued by him. It is the proof of his proficiency and

interest in music. He was also a patron of many poets and scholars,

one of whom was Harisena. Thus he must be credited with a share

in the promotion of Sanskrit literature and learning, characteristic of

his dynasty. He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was

tolerant of other creeds. He evinced keen interest in Buddhism and

was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandu.

Economy of the Sangam Age

Economy of the Sangam Age

Agriculture was the chief occupation. Rice was the common
crop. Ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon
and a variety of fruits were the other crops. Jack fruit and pepperwere famous in the Chera country. Paddy was the chief crop in the
Chola and Pandya country.
The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular. They
include weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship building and
making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory. There was a
great demand for these products, as the internal and external trade
was at its peak during the Sangam period. Spinning and weaving of
cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality. The poems mention
the cotton clothes as thin as a cloud of steam or a slough of a snake.
There was a great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes
woven at Uraiyur.
Both internal and foreign trade was well organized and briskly
carried on in the Sangam Age. The Sangam literature, Greek and
Roman accounts and the archaeological evidences provide detailed
information on this subject. Merchants carried the goods on the
carts and on animal-back from place to place. Internal trade was
mostly based on the barter system.
External trade was carried between South India and the Greek
kingdoms. After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the Roman
trade assumed importance. The port city of Puhar became an
emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port with
precious goods. Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi,
Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam. The author of
Periplus provides the most valuable information on foreign trade.
Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the Roman Emperors like
Augustus, Tiberius and Nero were found in all parts of Tamil Nadu.
They reveal the extent of the trade and the presence of Roman
traders in the Tamil country. The main exports of the Sangam age
were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon
and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones. Gold,
horses and sweet wine were the chief imports

.End of the Sangam Age

Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period
slowly witnessed its decline. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil
country for about two and a half centuries. We have little information
about the Kalabhra rule. Jainism and Buddhism became prominent
during this period. The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and
Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out of the
Tamil country and established their ruleChandragupta I (320 – 330 A.D.)

history of the Sangam Polity

Sangam Polity

Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the
Sangam period. The king had also taken the advice of his minister,
court-poet and the imperial court or avai. The Chera kings assumed
titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar,
the Chola kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi and the Pandya kings
Thennavar and Minavar. Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal
emblem – carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow for
the Cheras. The imperial court or avai was attended by a number of
chiefs and officials. The king was assisted by a large body of officials
who were divided into five councils. They were ministers (amaichar),
priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar)
and spies (orrar). The military administration was also efficiently
organized during the Sangam Age. Each ruler had a regular army
and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
Land revenue was the chief source of state’s income while
custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade. The Pattinappalai
refers to the custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar. Booty
captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasuryRoads and highways were well maintained and guarded night and
day to prevent robbery and smuggling.

Sangam Society

Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands - Kurinji

(hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal

(coastal) and Palai (desert). The people living in these five divisions

had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship.

· Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation,

hunting and honey collection.

· Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation,

cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.

· Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.

· Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and

salt manufacturing.

· Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.

Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar, anthanar,

vanigar and vellalar. The ruling class was called arasar. Anthanars played

a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion. Vanigars carried on

trade and commerce. The vellalas were agriculturists. Other tribal groups

like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were

also found in the Sangam society. Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas,

Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.

Religion

The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or

Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God. The worship of Murugan

was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan

was mentioned in the Sangam literature. He was honoured with six

abodes known as Arupadai Veedu. Other gods worshipped duringthe Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan

and Korravai. The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant

in the Sangam period. The Hero Stone was erected in memory of

the bravery shown by the warrior in battle. Many hero stones with

legends inscribed on them were found in different parts of Tamil

Nadu. This kind of worshipping the deceased has a great antiquity.

Position of Women

There is a plenty of information in the Sangam literature to

trace the position of women during the Sangam age. Women poets

like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this

period and contributed to Tamil literature. The courage of women

was also appreciated in many poems. Karpu or Chaste life was

considered the highest virtue of women. Love marriage was a

common practice. Women were allowed to choose their life partners.

However, the life of widows was miserable. The practice of Sati

was also prevalent in the higher strata of society. The class of dancers

was patronized by the kings and nobles.

Fine Arts

Poetry, music and dancing were popular among the people of

the Sangam age. Liberal donations were given to poets by the kings,

chieftains and nobles. The royal courts were crowded with singing

bards called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts in folk songs

and folk dances. The arts of music and dancing were highly

developed. A variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in the

Sangam literature. Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar. Koothu

was the most popular entertainment of the people.

Political History

Political History

The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the
Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam Age. The political
history of these dynasties can be traced from the literary references.

Cheras

The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their capital

was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri. They

had the palmyra flowers as their garland. The Pugalur inscription of

the first century A.D refers to three generations of Chera rulers.

Padirruppattu also provides information on Chera kings. Perum

Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan

and Cheran Senguttuvan were the famous rulers of this dynasty.

Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to 2nd century A.D. His younger

brother was Elango Adigal, the author of Silappathigaram. Among

his military achievements, his expedition to the Himalayas was

remarkable. He defeated many north Indian monarchs. Senguttuvan

introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal

wife in Tamil Nadu. The stone for making the idol of Kannagi was

brought by him after his Himalayan expedition. The consecration

ceremony was attended by many princes including Gajabhagu II

from Sri Lanka.The Chola kingdom of the Sangam period extended from

modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh. Their capital

was first located at Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar. Karikala was

a famous king of the Sangam Cholas. Pattinappalai portrays his

early life and his military conquests. In the Battle of Venni he defeated

the mighty confederacy consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas and eleven

minor chieftains. This event is mentioned in many Sangam poems.

Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by him in which

nine enemy chieftains submitted before him. Karikala’s military

achievements made him the overlord of the whole Tamil country.

Trade and commerce flourished during his reign period. He was

responsible for the reclamation of forest lands and brought them

under cultivation thus adding prosperity to the people. He also built

Kallanai across the river Kaveri and also constructed many irrigation

tanks.

Pandyas

The Pandyas ruled over the present day southern Tamil Nadu.

Their capital was Madurai. The earliest kings of the Pandyan dynasty

were Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi and

Mudathirumaran. There were two Neduncheliyans. The first one

was known as Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan (one who won

victories over the Aryan forces). He was responsible for the

execution of Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt Madurai. The other

was Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra (He who won the battle at

Talaiyalanganam) Neduncheliyan. He was praised by Nakkirar and

Mangudi Maruthanar. He wore this title after defeating his enemies

at the Battle of Talaiyalanganam, which is located in the Tanjore

district. By this victory Neduncheliyan gained control over the entire

Tamil Nadu. Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar

describes the socio-economic condition of the Pandya countryincluding the flourishing seaport of Korkai. The last famous Pandyan

king was Uggira Peruvaludhi. The Pandyan rule during the Sangam

Age began to decline due to the invasion of the Kalabhras.

Minor Chieftains

The minor chieftains played a significant role in the Sangam

period. Among them Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman

were popular for their philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets.

Therefore, they were known as Kadai Yelu Vallalgal. Although they

were subordinate to the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers, they were

powerful and popular in their respective regions.

history of the Sangam Literature

Sangam Literature

The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam,
Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics– Silappathigaram and Manimegalai. Tolkappiyam authored by
Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature. It is a work on
Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and socioeconomic
conditions of the Sangam period. The Ettutogai or Eight
Anthologies consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai,
Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal
and Padirruppattu. The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten
works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai,
Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu,
Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai
and Malaipadukadam. Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided
into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram (valour).
Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with
ethics and morals. The most important among them is Tirukkural
authored by Thiruvalluvar. Silappathigaram written by Elango
Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable
information on the Sangam polity and society.

Other Sources

In addition to the Sangam literature, the Greek authors like

Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mention the commercial

contacts between the West and South India. The Asokan inscriptions

mention the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers on the south of the

Mauryan empire. The Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of

Kalinga also mentions about Tamil kingdoms. The excavations at

Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal and other places reveal the

overseas commercial activities of the Tamils.

Period of Sangam Literature

The chronology of the Sangam literature is still a disputed

topic among the scholars. The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology

lies in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and CheranSenguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries. This is

confirmed by Silappathigaram as well as the Dipavamsa and

Mahavamsa. Also the Roman coins issued by Roman emperors of

the first century A.D were found in plenty in various places of Tamil

Nadu. Therefore, the most probable date of the Sangam literature

has been fixed between the third century B.C. to third century A.D.

on the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences.

history of the Gandhara Art

Gandhara Art

The home of the Gandhara school of art is the territory in and
around Peshawar in northwestern India. The best of the Gandhara
sculpture was produced during the first and
second centuries A.D. It originated during the
reign of Indo-Greek rulers but the real patrons
of this school of art were the Sakas and the
Kushanas, particularly Kanishka. Gandhara art
was a blend of Indian and Graeco-Roman
elements. Specimens of Gandhara sculpture have
been found in Taxila, Peshawar and in several
places of northwest India. The Gandhara school
made sculptures of the Buddha in various sizes,
shapes and postures. The reliefs depict Buddha’s
birth, his renunciation and his preaching. The
salient features of Gandhara art are:Moulding human body in a realistic manner with minute
attention to physical features like muscles, moustache and
curtly hair.
- Thick drapery with large and bold fold lines.
- Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and symbolic
expressions The main theme was the new form of Buddhism – Mahayanism
– and the evolution of an image of Buddha.
A large number of monasteries were also built from first to
fourth centuries A.D. Ruins of about fifteen monasteries were found
in and around Peshawar and Rawalpindi. The Buddhist stupas
erected during this period had Graeco-Roman architectural impact.
The height of the stupa was raised and ornamentation was added to
the structure of the stupa. These changes made the stupa more
attractive

Mathura School of Art

The school of art that developed at Mathura in modern Uttar
Pradesh is called the Mathura art. It flourished in the first century
A.D. In its early phase, the Mathura school of art developed on
indigenous lines. The Buddha images exhibit the spiritual feeling in
his face which was largely absent in the Gandhara school. The
Mathura school also carved out the images of Siva and Vishnu along
with their consorts Parvathi and Lakshmi. The female figures of
yakshinis and apsaras of the Mathura school were beautifully carved.

Successors of Kanishka and end of Kushana Rule

The successors of Kanishka ruled for another one hundred
and fifty years. Huvishka was the son of Kanishka and he kept the
empire intact. Mathura became an important city under his rule.Like Kanishka he was also a patron of Buddhism. The last important
Kushana ruler was Vasudeva. The Kushana empire was very much
reduced in his rule. Most of his inscriptions are found in and around
Mathura. He seems to have been a worshipper of Siva. After
Vasudeva, petty Kushan princes ruled for sometime in northwestern
India
The Sangam Age constitutes an important chapter in the history
of South India. According to Tamil legends, there existed three
Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu popularly
called Muchchangam. These Sangams flourished under the royal
patronage of the Pandyas. The first Sangam, held at Then Madurai,
was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work of
this Sangam was available. The second Sangam was held at
Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except
Tolkappiyam. The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by
Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of poets who
produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived. These
Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history
of the Sangam Age.

history of the Kanishka (78 – 120 A.D.)

Kanishka (78 – 120 A.D.)

Kanishka was the most important ruler of the Kushana
dynasty. He was the founder of the Saka era which starts from 78
A.D. He was not only a great conqueror but also a patron of religion
and art.

.Kanishka’s Conquests

At the time of his accession his empire

included Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sind and

Punjab. Subsequently he conquered

Magadha and extended his power as far as

Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya. According to

Kalhana, Kanishka invaded Kashmir and

occupied it. His coins are found in many

places like Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi and

Benares and therefore, he must have conquered

the greater part of the Gangetic plain.

He also fought against the Chinese and acquired some

territories from them. During the first expedition he was defeated

by the Chinese general Pancho. He undertook a second expedition

in which he was successful and he scored a victory over Panyang,

the son of Pancho. Kanishka annexed the territories of Kashgar,

Yarkand and Khotan into his empire.

The empire of Kanishka was a vast one extending from

Gandhara in the west to Benares in the east, and from Kashmir in

the north to Malwa in the south. His capital was Purushapura or

modern day Peshawar. Mathura was another important city in his

empire.

Kanishka and Buddhism

Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign.

However, his coins exhibit the images of not only Buddha but also

Greek and Hindu gods. It reflects the Kanishka’s toleration towards

other religions. In the age of Kanishka the Mahayana Buddhism

came into vogue. It is different in many respects from the religion

taught by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka. The Buddha came

to be worshipped with flowers, garments, perfumes and lamps. Thusimage worship and rituals developed in Mahayana Buddhism.

Kanishka also sent missionaries to Central Asia and China

for the propagation of the new faith. Buddhist chaityas and viharas

were built in different places. He patronised Buddhist scholars like

Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna. He also convened the Fourth

Buddhist Council to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology

and doctrine. It was held at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar

in Kashmir under the presidentship of Vasumitra. About 500 monks

attended the Council. The Council prepared an authoritative

commentary on the Tripitakas and the Mahayana doctrine was given

final shape. Asvagosha was a great philosopher, poet and dramatist.

He was the author of Buddhacharita. Nagarjuna from south India

adorned the court of Kanishka. The famous physician of ancient

India Charaka was also patronized by him.

Foreign Invasions of Northwest India

Bactrians

Bactria and Parthia became independent from the Syrian
empire in the middle of the third century B.C. Demetrius, the Greek
ruler of Bactria invaded Afghanistan and Punjab and occupied them.
From Taxila, he sent two of his commanders, Appolodotus and
Menander for further conquests. Appolodotus conquered the Sindh
and marched up to Ujjain. Menander extended his rule up to Mathura
and from there he made attempts to capture Pataliputra. But he
was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra
Sunga.
Menander was also known as Milinda and the capital of his
kingdom was Sakala (Sialcot). He evinced much interest in
Buddhism and his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena was
compiled in the Pali work, Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda).
He also embraced Buddhism. A Greek ambassador Heliodorus
became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at Besnagar.
The Greek influence in India lasted for more than a century after the
death Menander.

.Sakas

The Sakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria and Parthia and
captured them from the Greek rulers. Following the footsteps of
the Greeks, the Sakas gradually extended their rule over
northwestern India. There were two different groups of Sakas –
the Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and the Western satraps
ruling over Maharashtra.
The founder the Saka rule in India in the first century B.C.
was Maues. His son and successor was Azes I, who was considered
to be the founder of the Vikrama era.
Sakas rulers of Taxila were overthrown by the Parthians.

Kushanas

The Kushanas were a branch of Yuchi tribe, whose original

home was central Asia. They first came to Bactria displacing the

Sakas. Then they gradually moved to

the Kabul valley and seized the

Gandhara region. The founder of the

Kushana dynasty was Kujula

Kadphises or Kadphises I. He

occupied the Kabul valley and issued

coins in his name. His son Wima

Kadphises or Kadphises II conquered the whole of northwestern

India as far as Mathura. He issued gold coins with high-sounding

titles like the ‘Lord of the Whole World’. He was a devotee of

Lord Siva.

history of the Sungas

Sungas

The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga,
who was the commander-in-chief under the Mauryas. He
assassinated the last Mauryan ruler and usurped the throne. The
most important challenge to the Sunga rule was to protect north
India against the invasions of the Bactrian Greeks from the northwest.
The Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied it for
sometime. However, Pushyamitra succeeded in regaining the lostterritory. He also fought a campaign against Kharavela of Kalinga
who invaded north India.

Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. He

performed two asvamedha sacrifices. Buddhist sources refer him

as a persecutor of Buddhism. But there is enough evidence to show

that Pushyamitra patronised Buddhist art. During his reign the

Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and

further improved.

After the death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the

ruler. The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by

his minister Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of the Kanva dynasty.

The Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years. After the fall of the Kanvas,

the history of Magatha was a blank until the establishment of the

Gupta dynasty.

The rule of the Sungas was important because they defended the

Gangetic valley from foreign invasions. In the cultural sphere, the Sungas

revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice. They also promoted the growth

of Vaishnavism and the Sanskrit language. In short, the Sunga rule was

a brilliant anticipation of the golden age of the Guptas.

Satavahanas

In the Deccan, the Satavahanas

established their independent rule after the

decline of the Mauryas. Their rule lasted

for about 450 years. They were also known

as the Andhras. The Puranas and

inscriptions remain important sources for

the history of Satavahanas. Among the inscriptions, the Nasik and

Nanaghad inscriptions throw much light on the reign of Gautamiputra

Satakarni. The coins issued by the Satavahanas are also helpful in

knowing the economic conditions of that period.The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. He was

succeeded by Krishna, who extended the kingdom up to Nasik in

the west. The third king was Sri Satakarni. He conquered western

Malwa and Berar. He also performed asvamedha sacrifices. The

seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. He reigned

for a period of five years. Hala became famous for his book

Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains 700 verses in Prakrit

language.

The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra

Satakarni. He ruled for a period of 24 years from 106 to 130 A.D.

His achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription by his

mother Gautami Balasri. Gautamiputra Satakarni captured the whole

of Deccan and expanded his empire. His victory over Nagapana,

the ruler of Malwa was remarkable. He patronized Brahmanism.

Yet, he also gave donations to Buddhists.

Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son

Vashishtaputra Pulamayi. He extended the Satavahana power up to

the mouth of the Krishna river. He issued coins on which the image

of ships was inscribed. They reveal the naval power and maritime

trade of the Satavahanas. The last great ruler of Satavahanas was

Yajna Sri Satakarni.

Economic Condition

There was a remarkable progress in the fields of trade and

industry during the Satavahana rule. Merchants organized guilds to

increase their activities. The craft guilds organized by different

craftsmen such as potters, weavers and oil pressers also came into

existence. Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade.

The Satavahana period also witnessed overseas commercial activity.

Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan. The greatest port of

the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west Deccan. Gandakasela

and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports.Cultural Contributions

The Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism. They

built chaityas and viharas. They also made grants of villages and

lands to Buddhist monks. Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old

Amaravathi stupa. Their architecture in Nagarjunakonda was also

notable. Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along with

the performance of asvamedha and rajasuya sacrifices. They also

patronized the Prakrit language and literature. Hala’s Sattasai is an

excellent piece of Prakrit literature.

history of the Mauryan Art and Architecture

Mauryan Art and Architecture

The monuments before the period of Asoka were mostly made
of wood and therefore perished. The use of stone started from the
time of Asoka. Even of the numerous monuments of Asoka, only a
few have remained. His palace and monasteries and most of his
stupas have disappeared. The only remaining stupa is at Sanchi.
The artistic remains of the Mauryan period can be seen in the
following heads:

Pillars

The pillars erected by Asoka furnish the

finest specimen of the Mauryan art. Asokan

pillars with inscriptions were found in places like

Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi and

Saranath. Their tops were crowned with figures

of animals like lion, elephant and bull. The

Saranath pillar with four lions standing back to

back is the most magnificent. The Indian

government adopted this capital with some

modifications as its state emblemStupas

Asoka built a number of stupas

throughout his empire but majority of them

were destroyed during foreign invasions.

Only a few have survived. The best example

is the famous Sanchi stupa with massive

dimensions. It was originally

built with bricks but later

enlarged after the time of Asoka.

Caves

The caves presented to the Ajivikas by Asoka

and his son Dasaratha remain important heritage of

the Mauryas. Their interior walls are polished like

mirror. These were meant to be residences of monks.

The caves at Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya are

wonderful pieces of Mauryan architecture.

Causes for the Decline of the Mauryas

The causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire have been

widely debated by scholars. The traditional approach attributes the

decline to Asoka’s policies and his weak successors. Another

approach holds the inadequate political and economic institutions

to sustain such a vast empire.

It was said that Asoka’s pro-Buddhist policies antagonized

the Brahmins who brought about a revolution led by Pushyamitra

Sunga. But Asoka was never acted against Brahmins. That Asoka’s

policy of non-violence reduced the fighting spirit of his army was

another charge against him. But Asoka had never slackened his

control over his empire despite following a pacifist policy. Thereforesolely blaming Asoka for the decline of the Mauryan empire may

not be correct because Asoka was more a pragmatist than an idealist.

There are multiple causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire

such as weak successors, partition of empire and administrative

abuses after Asoka’s reign. The combination of these factors

speeded up the breakup of the Mauryan empire and facilitated

Pushyamitra Sunga to drive away the Mauryan power and establish

the Sunga dynastyAfter the death of Asoka, his successors were not able to

keep the vast Mauryan Empire intact. The provinces started declaring

their independence. The northwest India slipped out of the control

of the Mauryas and a series of foreign invasions affected this region.

Kalinga declared its independence and in the further south the

Satavahanas established their independent rule. As a result, the

Mauryan rule was confined to the Gangetic valley and it was soon

replaced by the Sunga dynasty.

history of the Department of Commerce and Industry

Department of Commerce and Industry

This department had controlled the retail and wholesale prices

of goods and tried to ensure their steady supply through its officers

called Adyakshas. It also controlled weights and measures, levied

custom duties and regulated foreign trade

.Judicial and Police Departments

Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal

courts. The chief justice of the Supreme Court at the capital was

called Dharmathikarin. There were also subordinate courts at the

provincial capitals and districts under Amatyas. Different kinds of

punishment such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation and death were

given to the offenders. Torture was employed to extract truth. Police

stations were found in all principal centres. Both Kautilya and Asokan

Edicts mention about jails and jail officials. The Dhamma

Mahamatras were asked by Asoka to take steps against unjust

imprisonment. Remission of sentences is also mentioned in Asoka’s

inscriptions.

Census

The taking of Census was regular during the Mauryan period.

The village officials were to number the people along with other

details like their caste and occupation. They were also to count the

animals in each house. The census in the towns was taken by

municipal officials to track the movement of population both foreign

and indigenous. The data collected were cross checked by the spies.

The Census appears to be a permanent institution in the Mauryan

administration.

Provincial and Local Administration

The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with

their capitals at Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The

provincial governors were mostly appointed from the members of

royal family. They were responsible the maintenance of law and

order and collection of taxes for the empire. The district

administration was under the charge of Rajukas, whose position

and functions are similar to modern collectors. He was assisted by

Yuktas or subordinate officials. Village administration was in thehands of Gramani and his official superior was called Gopa who

was in charge of ten or fifteen villages.

Both Kautilya and Megasthanes provided the system of

Municipal administration. Arthasastra contains a full chapter on the

role of Nagarika or city superintendent. His chief duty was to

maintain law and order. Megasthenes refers to the six committees

of five members each to look after the administration of Pataliputra.

These committees looked after: 1. Industries 2. Foreigners 3.

Registration of birth and deaths 4. Trade 5. Manufacture and sale

of goods 6. Collection of sales tax.

Later Mauryas

Later Mauryas

Asoka’s death in 232 B.C. was followed by the division of
the Mauryan Empire into two parts – western and eastern. The
western part was ruled by Kunala, son of Asoka and the eastern
part by Dasaratha, one of the grand sons of Asoka. Due to the
Bactrian invasions, the western part of the empire collapsed. The
eastern part was intact under Samprati successor of Dasaratha. The
last Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was assassinated by
Pushyamitra Sunga.

Mauryan Administration

Central Government

The ascendancy of the Mauryas had resulted in the triumph

of monarchy in India. Other systems like republics and oligarchies

that were prevalent in the pre-Mauryan India had collapsed. Although

Kautilya the foremost political theorist of ancient India supported

the monarchial form of government, he did not stand for royal

absolutism. He advocated that the king should take the advice of

his ministry in running the administration. Therefore, a council of

ministers called Mantriparishad assisted the king in administrativematters. It consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and

Yuvaraja. There were civil servants called Amatyas to look after

the day-to-day administration. These officers were similar to the

IAS officers of independent India. The method of selection of

Amatyas was elaborately given by Kautilya. Asoka appointed

Dhamma Mahamatras to supervise the spread of Dhamma. Thus

the Mauryan state had a well organized civil service.

Revenue Department

Samharta, the chief of the Revenue Department, was in charge

of the collection of all revenues of the empire. The revenues came from

land, irrigation, customs, shop tax, ferry tax, forests, mines and pastures,

license fee from craftsmen, and fines collected in the law courts. The

land revenue was normally fixed as one sixth of the produce. The main

items of expenditure of the state related to king and his household,

army, government servants, public works, poor relief, religion, etc.

Army

The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under the

control of Senapati. The salaries were paid in cash. Kautilya refers

to the salaries of different ranks of military officers. According to

Greek author Pliny, the Mauryan army consisted of six lakh infantry,

thirty thousand cavalry, nine thousand elephants and eight thousand

chariots. In addition to these four wings, there were the Navy and

Transport and Supply wings. Each wing was under the control of

Adyakshas or Superintendents. Megasthenes mentions six boards

of five members each to control the six wings of the military.

history of the Asoka and Buddhism

Asoka and Buddhism

According some scholars, his conversion to Buddhism was
gradual and not immediate. About 261 B.C. Asoka became a Sakya
Upasaka (lay dsicple) and two and a half years later, a Bikshu
(monk). Then he gave up hunting, visited Bodh-Gaya, and organized
missions. He appointed special officers called Dharma Mahamatras
to speed up the progress of Dhamma. In 241 B.C., he visited the
birth place of Buddha, the Lumbini Garden, near Kapilavastu. He
also visited other holy places of Buddhism like Sarnath, Sravasti
and Kusinagara. He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son
Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra who planted there the branch
of the original Bodhi tree. Asoka convened the Third Buddhist
Council at Pataliputra in 240 B.C. in order to strengthen the Sangha.
It was presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa.

Extent of Asoka’s Empire

Asoka’s inscriptions mention the southernmost kingdoms –
Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras – as border-states.
Therefore these states remained outside the Mauryan Empire.
According to Rajatarangini, Kashmir was a part of the Mauryan
Empire. Nepal was also within the Mauryan empire. Thenorthwestern frontier was already demarcated by Chandragupta
Maurya.

Asoka’s Dhamma

Although Asoka embraced Buddhism and took efforts to
spread Buddhism, his policy of Dhamma was a still broad concept.
It was a way of life, a code of conduct and a set of principles to be
adopted and practiced by the people at large. His principles of
Dhamma were clearly stated in his Edicts. The main features of
Asoka’s Dhamma as mentioned in his various Edicts may be summed
as follows:
1. Service to father and mother, practice of ahimsa, love of truth,
reverence to teachers and good treatment of relatives.
2. Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings and
avoiding expensive and meaningless ceremonies and rituals.
3. Efficient organization of administration in the direction of social
welfare and maintenance of constant contact with people
through the system of Dhammayatras.
4. Humane treatment of servants by masters and prisoners by
government officials.
5. Consideration and non-violence to animals and courtesy to
relations and liberality to Brahmins.
6. Tolerance among all the religious sects.
7. Conquest through Dhamma instead of through war.
The concept of non-violence and other similar ideas of
Asoka’s Dhamma are identical with the teachings of Buddha. But
he did not equate Dhamma with Buddhist teachings. Buddhism
remained his personal belief. His Dhamma signifies a general code
of conduct. Asoka wished that his Dhamma should spread through
all social levels

.Estimate of Asoka

Asoka was “the greatest of kings” surpassing Alexander the
Great and Julius Caesar and other renowned Emperors of the world.
According to H.G. Wells “Amidst the tens and thousands of names
of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, the name of Asoka
shines and shines almost alone, a star”. Asoka was true to his ideals.
He was not a dreamer but a man of practical genius. His Dhamma is
so universal that it appeals to humanity even today. He was an
example in history for his benevolent administration and also for
following the policy of non-aggression even after his victory in the
war. His central ideal was to promote the welfare of humanity.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE MAURYAS

Archaeological Sources
Edicts of Asoka

The inscriptions of Asoka were first deciphered by James
Princep in 1837. They are written in Pali language and in someplaces Prakrit was used. The Brahmi script was employed for writing.
In the northwestern India Asokan inscriptions were found in Karoshti
script. There are fourteen Major Rock Edicts. The two Kalinga
Edicts are found in the newly conquered territory. The major pillar
Edicts were erected in important cities. There are minor Rock Edicts
and minor pillar Edicts. These Edicts of Asoka deal with Asoka’s
Dhamma and also instructions given to his officials. The XIII Rock
Edict gives details about his war with Kalinga. The Pillar Edict VII
gives a summary of his efforts to promote the Dhamma within his
kingdom. Thus the Asokan inscriptions remain valuable sources for
the study of Asoka and the Mauryan Empire.

POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE MAURYAS
Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.)

Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan
Empire. He, at the young age of 25, captured Pataliputra from the
last ruler of the Nanda dynasty, Dhanananda. In this task he was
assisted by Kautilya, who was also known as Chanakya or
Vishnugupta. After firmly establishing his power in the Gangetic
valley, he marched to the northwest and subdued the territories up
to the Indus. Then he moved to central India and occupied the region
north of Narmada river.

In 305 B.C., he marched against Selukas Niketar, who was
Alexander’s General controlling the northwestern India.
Chandragupta Maurya defeated him and a treaty was signed. By
this treaty, Selukas Niketar ceded the trans-Indus territories – namely
Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia – to the Mauryan Empire. He also
gave his daughter in marriage to the Mauryan prince. Chandragupta
made a gift of 500 elephants to Selukas. Megasthenes was sent to
the Mauryan court as Greek ambassador.Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life
and stepped down from the throne in favour of his son Bindusara.
Then he went to Sravana Belgola, near Mysore along with Jain
monks led by Bhadrabhagu and starved himself to death.

Bindusara (298 – 273 B.C.)

Bindusara was called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha” meaning
slayer of enemies. He is said to have conquered the Deccan up to
Mysore. Taranatha, the Tibetan monk states that Bindusara
conquered 16 states comprising ‘the land between the two seas’.
The Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of
the far south. Therefore, it can be said that the Mauryan Empire
under Bindusara extended up to Mysore.
Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian
king Antiochus I. Bindusara wrote to Antiochus I asking for sweet
wine, dried figs and a sophist. The latter sent all but a sophist
because the Greek law prohibited sending a sophist. Bindusara
supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect. Bindusara appointed his
son Asoka as the governor of Ujjain.

Asoka the Great (273 – 232 B.C.)

There is little information regarding the early life of Asoka.
He acted as Governor of Ujjain and also suppressed a revolt in
Taxila during his father Bindusara’s reign. There was an interval of
four years between Asoka’s accession to the throne (273 B.C.)
and his actual coronation (269 B.C.). Therefore, it appears from
the available evidence that there was a struggle for the throne after
Bindusara’s death. The Ceylonese Chronicles, Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa state that Asoka captured power after killing his ninety
nine brothers including the his elder brother Susima. The youngest
brother Tissa was spared. But according to Taranatha of Tibet,
Asoka killed only six of his brothers. Asoka’s Edict also refers tohis brothers acting as officers in his administration. However, it is
clear that the succession of Asoka was a disputed one.
The most important event of Asoka’s reign was his victorious
war with Kalinga in 261 B.C. Although there is no detail about the
cause and course of the war, the effects of the war were described
by Asoka himself in the Rock edict XIII: “A hundred and fifty
thousand were killed and many times that number perished…” After
the war he annexed Kalinga to the Mauryan Empire. Another most
important effect of the Kalinga war was that Asoka embraced
Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta.

history of the .Effects of Alexander’s invasion

                                                    .Effects of Alexander’s invasion

The immediate effect of Alexander’s invasion was that it
encouraged political unification of north India under the Mauryas.
The system of small independent states came to an end. Alexander’s
invasion had also paved the way for direct contact between India
and Greece. The routes opened by him and his naval explorations
increased the existing facilities for trade between India and West
Asia. However, his aim of annexing the northwestern India to his
empire was not fulfilled due his premature death. His authority in
the Indus valley was a short-lived one because of the expansion of
Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta MauryaLiterary Sources.

                                                           Kautilya’s Arthasastra

This book in Sanskrit was written by Kautilya, a contemporary
of Chandragupta Maurya. Kautilya was also called ‘Indian
Machiavelli’. The manuscript of Arthasastra was first discovered
by R. Shama Sastri in 1904. The Arthasastra contains 15 booksand 180 chapters but it can be divided into three parts: the first
deals with the king and his council and the departments of
government; the second with civil and criminal law; and the third
with diplomacy and war. It is the most important literary source for
the history of the Mauryas.

                                                  Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa

The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in
Sanskrit. Although written during the Gupta period, it describes how
Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas.
It also gives a picture on the socio-economic condition under the
Mauryas.

                                                    Megasthenes’ Indica

Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of

Chandragupta Maurya. His book Indica has survived only in

fragments. Yet, his account gives details about the Mauryan

administration, particularly the administration of the capital city of

Pataliputra and also the military organization. His picture on

contemporary social life is notable. Certain unbelievable information

provided by him has to be treated with caution.

                                                      Other Literature

Apart from these three important works, the Puranas and the

Buddhist literature such as Jatakas provide information on the

Mauryas. The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa

throw light on the role Asoka in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

history of the Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.)

                                           Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.)

Political Condition on the eve of Alexander’s Invasion
After two centuries of the Persian invasion, Alexander from
Macedonia invaded India. On the eve of his invasion, there were a
number of small kingdoms in northwestern India. The leading kings
were Ambhi of Taxila, the ruler of Abhisara and Porus who ruled
the region between the rivers of Jhelum and Chenab. There were
many republican states like Nysa. In short, the northwestern India
remained the most disunited part of India and the rulers were fighting
with one another. They never come together against common enemy.
Yet, it was not easy for Alexander to overcome so many sources of
opposition.

                                                         Causes of the Invasion

Alexander ascended the throne of Macedonia after the death

of his father Philip in 334 B.C. He conquered the whole of Persia

by defeating Darius III in the battle of Arbela in 330 B.C. He also

aimed at further conquest eastwards and wanted to recover the lost

Persian Satrapy of India. The writings of Greek authors like

Herodotus about the fabulous wealth of India attracted Alexander.

Moreover, his interest in geographical enquiry and love of natural

history urged him to undertake an invasion of India. He believed

that on the eastern side of India there was the continuation of the

sea, according the geographical knowledge of his period. So, hethought that by conquering India, he would also conquer the eastern

boundary of the world.

                                              Battle of Hydaspes

In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains

and spent nearly ten months in fighting with the tribes. He crossed

the Indus in February 326 B.C. with the help of the bridge of boats.

He was warmly received by Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila. From there

Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit. But Porus refused

and decided to fight against Alexander. Then Alexander marched

from Taxila to the banks of the river Hydaspes (Jhelum). On the

other side of the river he saw the vast army of Porus. As there were

heavy floods in the river, Alexander was not able to cross it. After a

few days, he crossed the river and the famous battle of Hydaspes

was fought on the plains of Karri. It was a well-contested battle.

Although Porus had a strong army, he lost the battle. Alexander

was impressed by the courage and heroism of this Indian prince,

treated him generously and reinstated him on his throne.

Alexander continued his march as far as the river Beas

encountering opposition from the local tribes. He wanted to proceed

still further eastwards towards the Gangetic valley. But he could not

do so because his soldiers refused to fight. Hardships of prolonged

warfare made them tired and they wanted to return home. Alexander

could not persuade them and therefore decided to return. He made

arrangements to look after his conquered territories in India. He

divided the whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into three

provinces and put them under his governors. His retreat began in

October 326 B.C. and the return journey was not free from ordeals.

Many republican tribes attacked his army. Anyhow he managed to

reach beyond the Indus. On his way he reached Babylon where he

fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C

history of the PERSIAN AND GREEK INVASIONS

                                         .PERSIAN AND GREEK INVASIONS

Persian Invasions
Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C)
Cyrus the Great was the greatest conqueror of the
Achaemenian Empire. He was the first conqueror who led an
expedition and entered into India. He captured the Gandhara region.
All Indian tribes to the west of the Indus river submitted to him and
paid tribute. His son Cambyses had no time to pay attention towards
India.

                                                      Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.)

Darius I, the grandson of Cyrus, conquered the Indus valley

in 518 B.C. and annexed the Punjab and Sindh. This region became

the 20th Satrapy of his empire. It was the most fertile and populous

province of the Achaemenian Empire. Darius sent a naval expedition

under Skylas to explore the Indus.

                                                      Xerxes (465-456 B.C.)

Xerxes utilized his Indian province to strengthen his position.

He deployed Indian infantry and cavalry to Greece to fight his

opponents. But they retreated after Xerxes faced a defeat in Greece.

After this failure, the Achaemenians could not follow a forward policy

in India. However, the Indian province was still under their control.

Darius III enlisted Indian soldiers to fight against Alexander in 330

B.C. It is evident that the control of Persians slackened on the eve

of Alexander’s invasion of India.

                                                      Effects of the Persian Invasion

The Persian invasion provided an impetus to the growth of

Indo-Iranian commerce. Also, it prepared the ground for

Alexander’s invasion. The use of the Kharoshti script, a form of

Iranian writing became popular in northwestern India and some ofAsoka’s edicts were written in that script. We are able to see the

influence of Persian art on the art of the Mauryas, particularly the

monolithic pillars of Asoka and the sculptures found on them. The

very idea of issuing edicts by Asoka and the wording used in the

edicts are traced to Iranian influence. In short, the Iranian connection

with India proved more fruitful than the short-lived Indo-

Macedonian contact.

history of the Bimbisara (546 - 494 B.C.)

                                                Bimbisara (546 - 494 B.C.)

Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He consolidated
his position by matrimonial alliances. His first matrimonial alliance
was with the ruling family of Kosala. He married Kosaladevi, sister
of Prasenajit. He was given the Kasi region as dowry which yielded
large revenue. Bimbisara married Chellana, a princess of the Licchavi
family of Vaisali. This matrimonial alliance secured for him the safety
of the northern frontier. Moreover, it facilitated the expansion of
Magadha northwards to the borders of Nepal. He also married
Khema of the royal house of Madra in central Punjab. Bimbisara
also undertook many expeditions and added more territories to his
empire. He defeated Brahmadatta of Anga and annexed that
kingdom. He maintained friendly relations with Avanti. He had also
efficiently reorganized the administration of his kingdom.
Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira
and Gautama Buddha. However, both religions claim him as their
supporter and devotee. He seems to have made numerous gifts to the Buddhist Sangha.

                                                       Ajatasatru (494 - 462 B.C.)

The reign of Ajatasatru was remarkable for his military conquests.

He fought against Kosala and Vaisali. His won a great success against

a formidable confederacy led by the Lichchavis of Vaisali. This had

increased his power and prestige. This war lasted for about sixteen

years. It was at this time that Ajatasatru realised the strategic importance

of the small village, Pataligrama (future Pataliputra). He fortified it to

serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali.

Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru was a follower

of their religion. But it is generally believed that in the beginning he

was a follower of Jainism and subsequently embraced Buddhism.

He is said to have met Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted

in the sculptures of Barhut. According to the Mahavamsa, he

constructed several chaityas and viharas. He was also instrumental

in convening the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha soon after the

death of the Buddha.

The immediate successor of Ajatasatru was Udayin. He laid

the foundation of the new capital at Pataliputra situated at the

confluence of the two rivers, the Ganges and the Son. Later it became

famous as the imperial capital of the Mauryas. Udayin’s successors

were weak rulers and hence Magadha was captured by Saisunaga.

Thus the Haryanka dynasty came to an end and the Saisunaga

dynasty came to power.

                                                      Saisunaga dynasty

The genealogy and chronology of the Saisunagas are not clear.

Saisunaga defeated the king of Avanti which was made part of the

Magadhan Empire. After Saisunaga, the mighty empire began to

collapse. His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka. During his

reign the second Buddhist Council was held at Vaisali. Kalasoka

was killed by the founder of the Nanda dynastyNandas

The fame of Magadha scaled new heights under the Nanda

dynasty. Their conquests went beyond the boundaries of the Gangetic

basin and in North India they carved a well-knit and vast empire.

Mahapadma Nanda was a powerful ruler of the Nanda

dynasty. He uprooted the kshatriya dynasties in north India and

assumed the title ekarat. The Puranas speak of the extensive

conquests made by Mahapadma. The Hathigumpha inscription of

Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by the

Nandas. Many historians believe that a considerable portion of the

Deccan was also under the control of the Nandas. Therefore,

Mahapadma Nanda may be regarded as a great empire builder.

According to the Buddhist tradition, Mahapadma Nanda ruled

about ten years. He was succeeded by his eight sons, who ruled

successively. The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda. He kept the

Magadhan empire intact and possessed a powerful army and

enormous wealth. The fabulous wealth of the Nandas is also

mentioned by several sources. The enormous wealth of the Nandas

is also referred to in the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the

poet Mamulanar. The flourishing state of agriculture in the Nanda

dominions and the general prosperity of the country must have

brought to the royal treasury enormous revenue. The oppressive

way of tax collection by Dhana Nanda was resented by the people.

Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya

initiated a popular movement against the Nanda rule. It was during

this time that Alexander invaded India.

history of the Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture

                                          Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture

Buddhism has made a remarkable contribution to the
development of Indian culture.- The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. Later, it
became one of the cherished values of our nation.
- Its contribution to the art and architecture of India was
notable. The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya are wonderful
pieces of architecture. Buddhism takes the credit for the chaityas
and viharas in different parts of India.

- It promoted education through residential universities like
those at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramasila.
- The language of Pali and other local languages developed
through the teachings of Buddhism.
- It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other
parts of Asia.In the beginning of the 6th century B.C., the northern India
consisted of a large number of independent kingdoms. Some of
them had monarchical forms of government, while some others were
republics. While there was a concentration of monarchies on the
Gangetic plain, the republics were scattered in the foothills of the
Himalayas and in northwestern India. Some of the republics
consisted of only one tribe like the Sakyas, Licchavis and Mallas.
In the republics, the power of decision in all matters of state vested
with the Public Assembly which was composed of the tribal
representatives or heads of families. All decisions were by a
majority vote.

The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen
great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’. They were Anga,
Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala,
Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja. TheJain texts also contain references to the existence of sixteen
kingdoms. In course of time, the small and weak kingdoms either
submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually got eliminated. Finally
in the mid 6th century B.C., only four kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti,
Kosala and Magadha survived.

                                                          Vatsa

The Vatsa kingdom was situated on the banks of the river
Yamuna. Its capital was Kausambi near modern Allahabad. Its most
popular ruler was Udayana. He strengthened his position by entering
into matrimonial alliances with Avanti, Anga and Magadha. After
his death, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom.

                                                          Avanti

The capital of Avanti was Ujjain. The most important ruler of
this kingdom was Pradyota. He became powerful by marrying
Vasavadatta, the daughter of Udayana. He patronized Buddhism.
The successors of Pradyota were weak and later this kingdom was
taken over by the rulers of Magadha.

                                                          Kosala

Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its
famous ruler. He was highly educated. His position was further
strengthened by the matrimonial alliance with Magadha. His sister
was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry.
Subsequently there was a dispute with Ajatasatru. After the end of
the conflict, Prasenajit married the daughter of Bimbisara. After the
death of this powerful king, Kosala became part of the Magadha.Magadha
Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged
powerful and prosperous. It became the nerve centre of political
activity in north India. Magadha was endowed by nature with certain
geographical and strategic advantages. These made her to rise to
imperial greatness. Her strategic position between the upper and
lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great advantage. It had a
fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron
deposits near Gaya added to its natural assets. Her location at the
centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to her
wealth. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign of
Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its
zenith.

history of the Teachings of Buddha

                                                               Teachings of Buddha

The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are:
- The world is full of suffering.
- The cause of suffering is desire.
- If desires are get rid off, suffering can be removed.
- This can be done by following the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right
speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulnessand right concentration. Buddha neither accepts god nor rejects the
existence of god. He laid great emphasis on the law of karma. He
argued that the condition of man in this life depends upon his own
deeds. He taught that the soul does not exist. However, he
emphasized Ahimsa. By his love for human beings and all living
creatures, he endeared himself to all. Even under the gravest
provocation he did not show the least anger or hatred and instead
conquered everyone by his love and compassion. His religion was
identical with morality and it emphasized purity of thought, word
and deed. He was a rationalist who tried to explain things in the
light of reason and not on the basis of blind faith. Though he did not
make a direct attack on the caste system, he was against any social
distinctions and threw open his order to all. Therefore, Buddhism
was more a social than religious revolution. It taught the code of
practical ethics and laid down the principle of social equality.

                                                 Spread of Buddhism

Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks (bhikshus) and

lay worshippers (upasikas). The monks were organized into the

Sangha for the purpose of spreading his teachings. The membership

was open to all persons, male or female and without any caste

restrictions. There was a special code for nuns restricting their

residence and movement. Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were

some of the famous monks. The Sangha was governed on

democratic lines and was empowered to enforce discipline among

its members. Owing to the organised efforts made by the Sangha,

Buddhism made rapid progress in North India even during Buddha’s

life time. Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican states

of North India embraced this religion. About two hundred years

after the death of Buddha, the famous Mauryan Emperor Asoka

embraced Buddhism. Through his missionary effort Asoka spread

Buddhism into West Asia and Ceylon. Thus a local religious sectwas transformed into a world religion.

                                                           .Buddhist Councils

The first Buddhist Council was held at Rajagraha under the

chairmanship of Mahakasapa immediately after the death of Buddha.

Its purpose was to maintain the purity of the teachings of the Buddha.

The second Buddhist Council was convened at Vaisali around 383

B.C. The third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra under the

patronage of Asoka. Moggaliputta Tissa presided over it. The final

version of Tripitakas was completed in this council. The fourth

Buddhist Council was convened in Kashmir by Kanishka under the

chairmanship of Vasumitra. Asvagosha participated in this council.

The new school of Buddhism called Mahayana Buddhism came into

existence during this council. The Buddhism preached by the Buddha

and propagated by Asoka was known as Hinayana.

The Buddhist texts were collected and compiled some five

hundred years after the death of the Buddha. They are known as

the Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, the Vinaya and the Abhidhamma

Pitakas. They are written in the Pali language.

                          Causes for the Decline of Buddhism in India

The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to

the fall of popularity of Buddhism. The use of Pali, the language of

the masses as the language of Buddhism was given up from the 1st

century A.D. The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language

of the elite. After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of

idol worship and making offerings led to the deterioration of moral

standards. Moreover, the attack of the Huns in 5th and 6th centuries

and the Turkish invaders in 12th century destroyed the monasteries.

All these factors contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India.

history of the .Spread of Jainism

                                             .Spread of Jainism

Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He
admitted both men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of
both monks and lay followers. The rapid spread of Jainism was
due to the dedicated work of the members of the Sangha. It spread
rapidly in Western India and Karnataka. Chandragupta Maurya,
Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south India such as
the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas
patronized Jainism.

By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious
famine in the Ganges valley. Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu
and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka.
Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named
Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks. This
led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (whiteclad)
and Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked).

The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by
Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd
century B.C. The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5th
century A.D. The final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve
Angas was completed in this council.

                                 Buddhism

Life of Gautama Buddha (567- 487 B.C.)

Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder

of Buddhism, was born in 567 B.C. in

Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu. His father

was Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and

mother Mayadevi. As his mother died at child

birth, he was brought up by his aunt Prajapati

Gautami. At the age of sixteen he marriedYasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula. The sight of an old man,

a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him away from

worldly life. He left home at the age of twenty nine in search of

Truth. He wandered for seven years and met several teachers but

could not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a bodhi tree at

Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after which he got

Enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of thirty five. Since then he

became known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. He

delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares and for the next

forty five years he led the life of a preacher. He died at the age of

eighty at Kusinagara.

The most important disciples of Buddha were Sariputta,

Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali. Kings like Prasenajit of

Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his

doctrines and became his disciples. Buddha in his lifetime spread

his message far and wide in north India and visited places like

Benares, Rajagriha, Sravasti, Vaisali, Nalanda and Pataligrama. It

should be noted that he did not involve himself in fruitless

controversies regarding metaphysical questions like god, soul, karma,

rebirth, etc., and concerned himself with the practical problems

confronting man.

history of Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

                               Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was
the religious unrest in India in the 6th century B.C. The complex
rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not
acceptable to the common people. The sacrificial ceremonies were
also found to be too expensive. The superstitious beliefs and mantras
confused the people. The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative
to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in nature andtherefore not easily understood by all. Therefore, what was needed
in the larger interests of the people was a simple, short and intelligible
way to salvation for all people. Such religious teaching should also
be in a language known to them. This need was fulfilled by the
teachings of Buddha and Mahavira.

Other than the religious factor, social and economic factors
also contributed to the rise of these two religions. The rigid caste
system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society. Higher
classes enjoyed certain privileges which were denied to the lower
classes. Also, the Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the
priestly class. It should also to be noted that both Buddha and
Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya origin. The growth of trade led to
the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas. As a
result, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox
Varna system did not allow this. Therefore, they began to extend
support to Buddhism and Jainism. It was this merchant class that
extended the chief support to these new religions.

                                               Jainism

Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.)
Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain
tradition. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali to Kshatriya
parents Siddhartha and Trisala. He married Yasoda and gave birth
to a daughter. At the age of thirty he became an ascetic and wandered
for twelve years. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the
highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Gnana. Thereafter, he was
called Mahavira and Jina. His followers were called Jains and his
religion Jainism. He preached his doctrines for 30 years and died at
the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha.Teachings of Mahavira
The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three
gems), are:
- right faith
- right knowledge
- right conduct.
Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of
Mahavira. Right Knowledge is the acceptance of the theory that
there is no God and that the world has been existing without a creator
and that all objects possess a soul. Right conduct refers to the
observance of the five great vows:
- not to injure life
- not to lie
- not to steal
- not to acquire property
- not to lead immoral life.
Both the clergy and laymen had to strictly
follow the doctrine of ahimsa. Mahavira regarded all objects, both
animate and inanimate, have souls and various degrees of
consciousness. They possess life and feel pain when they are injured.
Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the
Vedic rituals. He advocated a very holy and ethical code of life.
Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes
injury to the earth, worms and animals. Similarly the doctrine of
asceticism and renunciation was also carried to extreme lengths bythe practice of starvation, nudity and other forms of self-torture.

history of the Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.)

                                   Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.)

The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic
Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans
to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms
are mentioned in the later Vedic literature. One important
development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms.
Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. Parikshat
and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom. Pravahana
Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a patron of
learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like
Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler
of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its
capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya.
Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal
kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of
India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and
Dakshinapatha (southern India).

                                              Political Organization

Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period.
Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or
rashtras in the later Vedic period. Hence the royal power hadincreased along with the increase in the size of kingdom. The king
performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position.
They include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha
(horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). The kings also assumed
titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth),
Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler).
In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were
involved in the administration in addition to the existing purohita,
senani and gramani. They include the treasury officer, tax collector
and royal messenger. At the lower levels, the administration was
carried on by the village assemblies. The importance of the Samiti
and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period.

                                                    Economic Condition

Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the
people to clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation.
Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of
implements were used for cultivation. Besides barley, rice and wheat
were grown. Knowledge of manure was another improvement.
Industrial activity became more varied and there was greater
specialization. Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery
made great progress. In addition to internal trade, foreign trade
became extensive. The Later Vedic people were familiar with the
sea and they traded with countries like Babylon. A class of hereditary
merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on
trade and commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known
as ganas. Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver
coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange.

                                                            Social Life

The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas
and Sudras) or the Varna system was thoroughly established duringthe Later Vedic period. The two higher classes - Brahmana, and
Kshatriya enjoyed privileges that were denied to the Vaisya and
Sudra. A Brahmin occupied a higher position than a Kshatriya but
sometimes Kshatriyas claimed a higher status over the Brahmins.
Many sub-castes on the basis of their occupation appeared in this
period.
In the family, the power of the father increased during the
Later Vedic period. There was no improvement in the status of
women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate to men.
Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child
marriages had become common. According the Aitreya Brahmana
a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the
women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.

                                                                  Religion

Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their
importance. Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and
Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic
period. Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with
them became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined
and that of sacrifices increased. Priesthood became a profession
and a hereditary one. The formulae for sacrifices were invented and
elaborated by the priestly class. Therefore, towards the end of this
period there was a strong reaction against priestly domination and
against sacrifices and rituals. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was
the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of
the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned
away from the useless rituals and insisted on true knowledge (jnana).